Cars Versus motorcycles Essay Example for Free

Cars Versus motorcycles Essay In the united states many people buy cars and motorcycles. Some people prefer driving cars rather than motorcycles. Both are very popular types of transportation these days. Cars and motorcycles have many differences in their cost, convenience ,safety, comfort and maintenance. The first difference between cars and motorcycles are the cost. For example, people need to pay a lot of money if they want to buy or lease a car. However, motorcycles are cheaper to rent or buy. Also, cars are more convenient than motorcycles. For instance, cars can transport many people but motorcycles do not do it. Also, cars have air condition and people can listen music while they drive. Other, advantages have a car is another person can drive for someone when he is drunk. Motorcycles are most popular in young people because is most exciting, easy to parking and avoids traffic. The second important difference is safety. For example, cars have seat beats and air bags can protect the drivers. However ,in motorcycles, people only can use helmet, so drivers are fragile. Also, cars have a cage most protectors in case of accident than motorcycles. Although, the car insurance is the most expensive than motorcycles it covers all damage. Also, people in motorcycle need to use sunglasses for protect their eyes. In case of terrible accident people in motorcycle died, so cars are most safety. Other essential differences are comfort and maintenance .Motorcycles do not have comfort because seats are very awkward. However ,cars have soft seats and if it is raining people will not get wet. When people need to change oil and tires, it is very expensive. Also, cars are most difficult to repair and use a lot of gas. However ,motorcycles are too easy repair because do not have a big motor. Motorcycles are not difficult to maintain. In conclusion ,cars and motorcycles are very different in their cost, convenience, safety, comfort and maintenance. A lot of people buy cars or motorcycles, it is a very common type of transportation .Each person buys a vehicle that they like for their features.

Reflecting Personal Development Study Of Mental Health Nursing Nursing Essay

Reflecting Personal Development Study Of Mental Health Nursing Nursing Essay This essay will illustrate how I developed from being a novice to an expert within my three year study of mental health nursing programme. The chosen topic from my log book to be discussed will be management. Dreyfus and Dreyfus student model (1986) and Benners stages of skill acquisitions (1984) will be used to structure this essay. The stages that students go through in their skills acquisition are novice, advance beginner, competent, proficient and expert (Selinger Crease, 2006).Current evidence based literature such as mentors comments from my ropas including government policies relevant to my practice will be used to explore my strengths, limitations and experiences. Future recommendation for my post graduate as a newly registered nurse will be explored. Names of clients, practice placements and health professionals will remain anonymous to protect and respect confidential in this essay (NMC, 2008). Management is planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling in order to achieve your goals (Clark, 2009).Management also involves making good decisions, communicating effectively, motivating staff and being persuasive and sensitive (Manion, 2005).Due to the health care system changes in modern nursing it is vital for a professional nurse to acquire different skills to manage a shift regardless of your specific role (Yoder-Wise, 2003).I took an interest in presenting management as my topic of this essay mainly for the following reasons. Once am newly qualified I might face a challenge of running a shift and management skills will be essential for the shift to be efficient and effective. Management skills are also essential as they are required to obtain a job as a mental health nurse. Hewison (2004) states management in nursing is essential to delivers high standards of care. The above author further state that delivery and organisation of care has been influenced by manag ement ideas and theory throughout its history. First year of training I completed 4 placements starting with an acute ward and next being a hip replacement ward. From there I went to the community where they specialised in children with learning disabilities. My last placement was a day hospital for old people with dementia and depression; this is where I had the most exposure. In my first placement I could not under see lying problems with the patients, for example when it came to observing moods and effects patients get from taking the medication they are prescribed on. My other problem was communicating using the correct terminology in my notes and handover. Swannell (1986) defines communication as imparting or exchange of information, message, letter, etc; Social dealings (Ingram and Lavery, 2009.p.14). Communication skills are essential in healthcare as they help professionals to maximise their management (Darley, 2002). At that time my communication was poor, therefore my management was lacking as its vital and mostly an essential skill in nursing management (Adair, 2009). When I started my last placement I had done research on communication and the same principles of communication applied on different situation. At this placement I managed to reflect on my experiences as a novice, hence improving my skills (Quirk, 2006). I applied knowledge gained from research but still referred to the literature and communication principles taught in year one. I was able to communicate effectively using the right terminology in my notes, hand over, ward round and appropriately with patients. I was able to identify under lying problems portrayed by the patients and interpret them when communicating with staff. Research and applying it to practice helped my skill improve hence enhanced my management (Pilot Beck, 2004). First year of training I started off as a novice because I had minimal knowledge but could not connect it to practice (Dreyfus and Dreyfus, 1986) .Using the work of Benners (1984) Stuart (2007) describes a novice as a new student entering a clinical area without experience but expected to perform. Stuart (2007) further goes on to say they must be given rules and instructions to guide their performance, they do not see beyond the task and underlying problems with a patient. Considering experience gained in year one I was in the novice trajectory. By the end of the first year I was now fairly experienced and considered myself as an advanced beginner no longer a novice (Dreyfus Dreyfus, 1986). In my second year the first practice placement was at a day hospital for older people suffering from dementia. From there I moved to work with the community mental health team (CMHT) treating patients with different disorders. The second placement is where I gained the optimum exposure as different skills where developed. We dealt with patients discharged from acute ward and have been referred to CMHT for ongoing treatment away from hospital settings offering a wide variety of interventions tailored to their specific needs (D.O.H, 2002). My final placement in second year was elective. This was a day centre for adults 18-65 offering a large range of therapy thats beneficial to their aspects of life (France and Kramer, 2005). According to Swansburg Swansburg (2002) planning involves what to do, how, who is to do it, where its to be done and when in order to achieve goals. My last placement was a day centre for older people suffering from dementia and I developed planning skills. I was shift planning and organized daily activities according to their needs (Schultz and Videbeck, 2009). I was involved in care planning under supervision as I was assigned to a patient suffering from depression. This patient used to play in professional bands and his depression started when he stopped. I planned his recovery by completing tasks like contacting professional recording studios and looking into an option to obtain funding to buy his own equipment. This included booking suitable dates and times he can attend to record. I managed to negotiate with the studio to get 3 free sessions but had to attend only when they was no bookings for business purpose. Both my communication and planning skills where implemented succes sfully and no longer followed the maxims used during the initial stages of learning, as I had acquired my skills (Selinger Crease, 2006). Based on this experience I gained decision making skills to contribute to my management. According to Thompson and Dowding (2002) decision making should be logical, have a rationale and concentrate on how decision will be made in a real world. According to Lloyd et al (2007) decision-making is a process of gathering relevant information and analysed to make a decision. Lloyd et al (2007) further clarifies that in a clinical setting, decision making is a situation in which choice is made from a number of possible alternatives considering the outcome is weighed. I applied these skills as I gathered information like contacts and whom to call, weighing distance and cost of travelling from his home to the studio and also obtaining time of recording referring to his schedule. I also gained another management skill in organisation. According to Kneedler and Dodge (1994) organization involves the arrangement of nursing actions orderly and that actions need to be evaluated, ranked and carried out according to the nurse capabilities. I believe I evaluated and ranked my actions as I considered the patients safety, choosing a suitable recording time for both my patient and the studio by making sure its very close, accessible and its during the day. When I finished year 2 I had gained new skills and my communication skills from year one had paid off as the new skills required good communication skills. (Please see appendix 1 and 2). According to Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1986) model of skill acquisition, an advance beginner has the knowledge of key working aspects in practice. I noticed this as I applied knowledge into practice, therefore found it easy applying rules in real a situation. Tsui (2003) states that advanced beginners begin to recognize situational elements, I recognized these elements easily as I had the experience as a novice according to Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1986). According to Benners (1984) I managed to complete tasks using my own judgement which was acceptable to a limited extent. I started of my third year very keen to professionally modify my management skills and taking into account my skills need to adhere with the nursing and midwifery council (NMC, 2008). The first placment was in a mother and baby unit offering therapy which meet individuals physical, psychological, emotional and social needs based on evidence (DH, 2007). The next and final placement of the programme is where I had the optimum exposure in my management skills. This was an acute ward for old people suffering from organic mental health disorders. I applied all management skills acquired in year 1 and 2. At this stage I was practicing as a competent nurse according to Benners (1984). I was initiating and completing tasks without being asked or being monitored but under supervision from my mentor. Management was not only about completing the shift planner. I was now looking at the safety of the ward, reviewing general, constant and special observations, during handover, ward round and CPA. My decision making skills where implemented using assessment tools and the help of staff as we allocated appropriate levels of observations for the patients (The Scottish Government, 2002). I was planning and organizing tasks to tackle on duty and transport for transfers or appointments. I was using the diary for communication and checking tasks to be completed. I also collected and prepared information to be communicated in ward rounds, handovers and CPAs. I was organizing daily activities and decisions being made according to their needs. (Please see appendix 3). According to Cherry and Jacob (2005) stage three of Benners (1984) skills of acquisition state that competent nurses foresee long range goals and master their skills at this stage. Competent nurses are to cope with complex situations by analysing and planning (Dreyfus and Dreyfus, 1986).Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1986) go on to say they have the background knowledge of area practice and ability to use their own judgement to achieve tasks. According to Dreyfus and Dreyfus (1986) a proficient nurse approaches situations as a whole rather than in small portions and tackles situation according to priority. Benners (1984) further states that as they view situations as a whole their decision making is more improved and they also use maxims as guides. Tomey and Alligood (2006) state that level four of the acquisition skill, nurses stand outside the situation and at the same time be part of the situation, fully engaging in the situation. I believe in my practice I had started portraying some abilities of a proficient nurse, integrating my knowledge and experience into a whole (Jasper, 2006). I was running shifts, planning and assigned tasks, incorporating management skills learned in year one, two and three to a level of proficiency by managing ones self, ones practice and that of others. (NMC, 2004). The last part of the stage is the expert level and using Benners model (1984), Sitzman and Eichelberger (2010) state that they no longer, rely on rules, guidelines or maxims to make appropriate decisions for a situation. I believe I did not reach to the stage to fulfil the expert level but have the ability to succeed to expert level after graduating. According to Daly, Speedy and Jackson (2010) reflection is a process of monitoring practice to enable you to improve it. They go on and further state that the following are essential when reflecting, self-appraisal, research for practice, everyday reviewing of practice, feelings and belief, and the consequences. This is the part where I reflect my practice in order to enhance and maintain my practice within competent to expert level for my future practice as a registered nurse. Focused will be my managerial skills to reach expert level. As a newly qualified I will make use of clinical supervision as an opportunity to improve and continue professional development (Royal College of Nursing, 2003).I will engage myself into lifelong learning that will be of benefit to the service users and my profession. This will extend my skills hence making it easier to manage when in critical situations (D.H, 1999). This will also enable me to maintain high standard of care, therefore enhancing manag ement skills (D.H, 2006).I will continue using evidence based practice to offer best possible care and practice(D.H, 2006). I will also avoid favouritism and discrimination amongst staff as they are good management skills (Marriner-Tomey, 2004).This is further supported by Woods (2005) who encourages democratic management as it encourages those you delegate to, to be part of the team and feel valued. I will be aware of the policies and procedures as its essential to understand your work role and responsibilities in the work place hence helps in managing and guide day to day operations (Fradd, 2004).Above all I will undergo a period of preceptorship as a newly qualified, therefore this will provide a structured, supportive bridge during my transition from a student to a practitioner in my managerial skills and other skills (Illingworth and Singleto, 2010). To conclude, after going through both five stages of Dreyfus and Deryfus (1984) and Benners (1984) I also got the opportunity to reflect my three year practice as a whole, therefore this enabled me to see areas I will need to improve in management. I will work towards being an expert as I progress into my profession . Contexts of Nursing   By John Daly, Sandra Speedy, Debra Jackson/2010/Elsevier/ -Perioperative patient care: the nursing perspective   By Julia A. Kneedler, Gwen H. Dodge,1994

The Secularization Thesis

The Secularization Thesis It was Voltaire who said, If God did not exist, it would be necessary to invent him. Our theory agrees. (Stark and Bainbridge 1987, page 23). These words uttered by Stark and Bainbridge back in 1987 offer a glimpse into the longstanding and heated debated between the previously dominant, the Secularization Thesis and the completing Supply Side Theory, in academic sociology. Both theories have profound implications for the future of religion as a force in society. This essay will look at two articles published in the Sociology of Religion. Firstly, this essay will look at the two completing theories of the Secularization Thesis and the Supply Side. Secondly, a summary of the main points of Starks article entitled Secularization: RIP† in 1999, and Bruces 2001 response article entitled Christianity in Britain: RIP will be presented. Looking critically at both articles, this essay will conclude that Stark has won the debate for this around. The secularization thesis dates from when the theory of development was at the high of its influence. The theory in its modern incantation comes from the work of British sociologist Bruan Wilson in the 1960s. This twofold thesis was based on the observation that since the French and industrial revolutions in Europe in the 19th and 20 centuries have lead to a decline in religiosity. Firstly, this theory used Modernity as an explanation for the exit of Christianity from the world. Secondary, this theory, would have the same effects on all types of societies. It saw the extinction of religion from an enlightened world. On the other hand, Supply Side Theory came to challenge the secularization theory in the 1980s. This theory aims to explain religiosity. Proponents believe that there is a constant potential human demand for religious goods over time and between societies. They believe that as the supply of these goods fluctuates, these fluctuations explain the different levels of religio us vigour in different societies. Basically, the greater the religious diversity of a society, the better the religious vigour in that society. As previously noted the secularization thesis theory has come under aggressive attack. Rodney Stark, then teaching at the University of Washington in 1999 published his article â€Å"Secularization, R.I.P. in the Sociology of Religion journal. In this article, Stark clearly argues that the Secularisation theoy, is out-dated, old-fashioned and, as the title of his article highlights, the theory is dead and should be left to rest in peace Stark begins his article by noting, â€Å"[f]or nearly three centuries, social scientists and assorted western intellectuals have been promising the end of religion†. Stark makes five major claims about the thesis. Firstly, according to Stark, Modernity and modernisation is seen by theorists to be the cause of secularization. He notes that modernisation is a â€Å"long, gradual, relatively stable process†, and that if secularization is the result of modernisation, there will be a corresponding â€Å"long-term, gradual, and relatively constant trend of religious decline†. Secondly, to Stark, the focus of the predictions is on individual piety, especially belief, not institutional differentiation. He believes that some supporters of the secularization thesis have changed their focus and definition so they do not have to admit that their thesis is failed. In fact, Stark agrees religion institutions have less power and that religious ritual and symbols have become le ss common in public life. Starks third argument is that in all versions of the thesis the claim that â€Å"of all aspects of modernization, it is science that has the most deadly implications for religion†. Fourthly, Secularization is irreversible. Nevertheless, Stark disagrees with this by noting Andree Greeleys 1994 comment that after 70 years of Soviet Union militant efforts to achieve secularisation â€Å"St. Vladimir has routed Karl Marx†. Finally, Stark notes that the thesis applies globally. While the theorists have mostly focuses on Christianity, â€Å"belief in supernatural powers† is going to die out all over the world. Allah and Jehovah will both join each other as an â€Å"interesting historical memory†. Secularization, R.I.P., then gets into specifics. To Stark the secularization thesis has failed to be an accurate prediction due to six main reasons. Firstly, it is a myth that there has been a decline in religious belief and participation because â€Å"there has been no demonstrable long-term decline in European religious participation† and in Europe â€Å"levels of subjective religiousness remain high.† Next, he argues that there has never been an â€Å"Age of Faith†. To Stark most Europeans did not attend church during the middle Ages and during the Renaissance. In fact, he highlights that many clergy were incompetent and that clergy were often absent from their parishes. In addition, while there were â€Å"periodic explosions of mass religious enthusiasm†, this offers even stronger evidence against involvement in organized religion. As a result, it can be said religious participation sometimes rises and sometimes declines. Thirdly, he argues that never was Europe really Christianized. Stark believes that although early Christianity was a â€Å"mass social movement in a highly competitive environment,† it lost its energy after it became the official religion of the Roman Empire. After Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity, there was never an attempt to convert the general population of Europe. This ties in to his fourth argument. Stark notes that while some theorists confirm there was no â€Å"Age of Faith, to them people still had high levels of religious belief, even if they did not go to church. Stark believes, using secular Iceland as an example, this still applies today, noting that while Iceland only has 2 percent church attendance, only 2.4 percent of the country are atheists. Fifthly, â€Å"if secularization is to show up anywhere it must show up among scientists†. However, Stark discovers that many scientists report being religious. Evidence that there is a conflict between religion and science is m ostly fictional, and scientists are not â€Å"notably irreligious†. Finally, Stark ends his rant about the fails of the Secularization theory by stating that evidence from Eastern Europe, Muslim nations and practitioners of Asian â€Å"folk† religions that modernity is compatible with religion. In 2001, Steven Bruce, Professor of Sociology at the University of Aberdeen, responded to Stark, with the appropriately titled â€Å"Christianity in Britain, R.I.P.†. Bruce disagrees with Starks hypothesis that the secularisation is simply a myth, based upon underestimating the religious vitality of the of the world today. Furthermore, Stark argued that this myth also exaggerated the religiosity of the past age of faith. In order to refute Starks claims, Bruce uses Britain as an example. Firstly, Bruce looks back at pre-industrial Britain. While knowledge of religion and its orthodoxy may have been limited, in order for there to be no golden age of faith we would have to be able accept nine â€Å"sociologically implausible assumptions†. These range from wondering if the most powerful national institution had little or no impact upon the people. To why would people allow such a large amount of the wealth of Britain go to this institution which they did not support. To Br uce, religious beliefs then were still far more pervasive and influential than they are now. Next, Bruce looks at various indicators of the decline of Christianity in Britain over the last 150 years. Today, most Christian communities are in decline. Even if we just look to surveys done in 1951, 1990, and 2000 there is a clear trend of dramatic decline. Bruce goes as far to comment that using the long-term stable trend of the decline of Church membership and attendance, it is possible to make a statistical projection that by the 2030s the main Christian denominations will cease to exist. (Methodist). Bruce clearly believes that no amount of supply side revisionism will change the fact that Christianity in Britain is in serious trouble. Bruce then takes a critical look at supply-side theories of religion, which argue that demand is constant and that levels of religious vitality therefore depend on the supply, which is greatest when there is a free and competitive market for providers. He asks that considering Christianity has always valued collective acts of worship, and if there is a free marketplace for religion and no lack of shortage of Christian organisations. Surly this should be expressed in some way. Bruce notes that while the New Age movement might appear to demonstrate the existence of widespread informal religious belief, perhaps of an enduring need for religion, his examination of the extent, nature, and significance of that movement suggests otherwise, noting that they are â€Å"numerically all but irrelevant†. The memberships of these new organisations do not sufficiently make up for those lost from the more traditional denominations, which are in danger of dwindling past the demographic point o f no return.

The Promising Future of Chinas Economy Essay -- Economy

The Promising Future of China's Economy If China's economy grows as fast for the next 20 years as it has for the past 14, it will be the biggest economy on earth: I feel that China's drastic improvements over the last 14 years are overwhelming, with their Real GNP growing at a rate of 9% a year, which means by, 1994, China's economy will match the performance of countries like Japan and Taiwan. China's standard of living has also increased, and the number of people who were considered absolutely poor decreased approximately 63%. I feel with the vast amount of people living in China, and the economic activity booming like it is, China's exports will continue to grow, as well as the standard of living. This will create more revenue, and more capital for them to produce even more goods and become even larger, prospering as one of the biggest economies on the earth. I also feel that China should try to overcome its corrupt system and steadily move into a free enterprise system. Competition has been the key to China's success: I believe that competition has been the key to China's success. When Mr. Deng opened the free market, it brought the first signs of the farmers becoming more rich since the 1950s. His political genius allowed the farmers to become rich. He also introduced the "open-door policy" which is proving to be very beneficial, as they follow in the footsteps of their strong rich neighbours. Mr. Perkins believed four conditions must be met for a market system to work well in reforming centrally planned economy. I believe if China continues to improve its productivity, and the number of monopolies decrease as studies show, China will move into a capitalist front only to... ...ver the last several years. The party has a large role to play in China's transition to a full market economy. China is on its way. the West should prepare China's interests lay in foreign investment, trade and economic reform. China's main driving force was competition, and they proved that privatisation and settling the matter of ownership are not so critical in the early stages of reform. In the years ahead, China must choose between keeping the communist party or kepping the stunning economic growth. If they continue to grow at the rate China grows, and keep improving their economy, and join the likes of Japan, they can combine forces in all aspects against the west, military wise and economically wise. if China's economy grows as fast for the next twenty years like it has for the past fourteen, it will be the biggest economy on earth.

Assia Djebars Fantasia :: Essays Papers

Assia Djebars Fantasia Assia Djebar’s Fantasia, is an autobiographical novel of an Algerian woman’s struggle to find her voice in a society that rewards the voiceless. In an area heavily laden with cultural traditions, she confounded these traditions by embracing the French language. Her struggles and development through the French language were very important themes within the novel. But what was Djebar’s link to the French language? Why did she pursue it in the manner that she did? Djebar’s Algerian world was filled with traditions that kept women silent. From the veils over their heads to the lack of encouragement to read or write, women were kept down. Djebar longed for freedom and found it in the French language. Flocking to the language of her enemies, Djebar found expression in its words. â€Å"I cohabit with the French language:† writes Djebar, â€Å"I may quarrel with it, I may have bursts of affection, I may subside into sudden or angry silences – theses are the normal occurrences in the life of any couple.† (213) If we examine this passage we will find what the French language truly meant to Djebar. There had been a relationship kin to marriage between French and her. This relationship starts early in her life with an introduction to French from her father. When Djebar first started to write love letters in French, she began to find the freedom she never knew existed. The language attracted her with its â€Å"endless jewel s.† This attraction was further spurred by the newfound freedoms she found in French schools. Djebar enjoyed the traditions and Quranic teachings imparted to her at the time however, she felt more fulfilled doing taboo things such as wearing shorts or playing sports. Djebar talks about her love affair with a student. In this affair it was not the love of the man that drove her but more importantly and ironically the budding love of the language. I believe it was the language that intrigued her the most not the actual person. In the passage, Djebar made a point to mention the language used to write the letter, but not the name of the person. To me this signifies the language as being the focal point of the event and not the actual person. If we look in the book, Djebar concentrates more deeply on her relationship with the French language over any other relationship that she had.

Product life-cycle theory Essay

The product life-cycle theory is an economic theory that was developed by Raymond Vernon in response to the failure of theHeckscher-Ohlin model to explain the observed pattern of international trade. The theory suggests that early in a product’s life-cycle all the parts and labor associated with that product come from the area in which it was invented. After the product becomes adopted and used in the world markets, production gradually moves away from the point of origin. In some situations, the product becomes an item that is imported by its original country of invention.[1] A commonly used example of this is the invention, growth and production of thepersonal computer with respect to the United States. The model applies to labor-saving and capital-using products that (at least at first) cater to high-income groups. In the new product stage, the product is produced and consumed in the US; no export trade occurs. In the maturing product stage, mass-production techniques are developed and foreign demand (in developed countries) expands; the US now exports the product to other developed countries. In the standardized product stage, production moves to developing countries, which then export the product to developed countries. The model demonstrates dynamic comparative advantage. The country that has the comparative advantage in the production of the product changes from the innovating (developed) country to the developing countries. Product life-cycle There are five stages in a product’s life cycle: Introduction Growths Maturity Saturation Decline The location of production depends on the stage of the cycle. Introduction New products are introduced to meet local (i.e., national) needs, and new products are first exported to similar countries, countries with similar needs, preferences, and incomes. If we also presume similar evolutionary patterns for all countries, then products are introduced in the most advanced nations. (E.g., the IBM PCs were produced in the US and spread quickly throughout the industrialized countries.) A copy product is produced elsewhere and introduced in the home country (and elsewhere) to capture growth in the home market. This moves production to other countries, usually on the basis of cost of production. (E.g., the clones of the early IBM PCs were not produced in the US.) The Period till the Maturity Stage is known as the Saturation Period. The industry contracts and concentrates—the lowest cost producer wins here. (E.g., the many clones of the PC are made almost entirely in lowest cost locations.) This is a period of stability. The sales of the product reach the peak and there is no further possibility to increase it. this stage is characterised by: Saturation of sales (at the early part of this stage sales remain stable then it starts falling). It continues till substitutes enter into the market. Marketer must try to develop new and alternative uses of product. Poor countries constitute the only markets for the product. Therefore almost all declining products are produced in developing countries. (E.g., PCs are a very poor example here, mainly because there is weak demand for computers in developing countries. A better example is textiles.) Note that a particular firm or industry (in a country) stays in a market by adapting what they make and sell, i.e., by riding the waves. For example, approximately 80% of the revenues of H-P are from products they did not sell five years ago. the profits go back to the host old country. Product Life Cycle Theory Raymond Vernon developed the international product life cycle theory in the 1960s. The international product life cycle theory stresses that a company will begin to export its product and later take on foreign direct investment as the product moves through its life cycle. Eventually a country’s export becomes its import. Although the model is developed around the U.S, it can be generalised and applied to any of the developed and innovative markets of the world. The product life cycle theory was developed during the 1960s and focused on the U.S since most innovations came from that market. This was an applicable theory at that time since the U.S dominated the world trade. Today, the U.S is no longer the only innovator of products in the world. Today companies design new products and modify them much quicker than before. Companies are forced to introduce the products in many different markets at the same time to gain cost benefits before its sales declines. The theory does not e xplain trade patterns of today. New trade theory New trade theory (NTT) is a collection of economic models in international trade which focuses on the role of increasing returns to scale and network effects, which were developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s. New trade theorists relaxed the assumption of constant returns to scale, and some argue that using protectionist measures to build up a huge industrial base in certain industries will then allow those sectors to dominate the world market. Less quantitative forms of a similar â€Å"infant industry† argument against totally free trade have been advanced by trade theorists since at least 1848 (see: History of free trade). Contents †¢1 The theory’s impact †¢2 Econometric testing †¢3 History of the theory’s development o3.1 â€Å"New† new trade theory †¢4 Theoretical foundations o4.1 See also o4.2 References o4.3 External links The theory’s impact Although there was nothing particularly ‘new’ about the idea of protecting ‘infant industries’ (an idea offered in theory since the 18th century, and in trade policy since the 1880s) what was new in â€Å"new trade theory† was the rigour of the mathematical economics used to model the increasing returns to scale, and especially the use of the network effect to argue that the formation of important industries was path dependent in a way which industrial planning and judicious tariffs might control. The models developed were highly technical, and predicted the possibilities of national specialization-by-industry observed in the industrial world (movies in Hollywood, watches in Switzerland, etc.). The story of path-dependent industrial concentrations can sometime lead to monopolistic competition or even situations of oligopoly. Some economists, such as Ha-Joon Chang, had argued that free trade would have prevented the development of the Japanese auto industries in the 1950s, when quotas and regulations prevented import competition. Japanese companies were encouraged to import foreign production technology but were required to produce 90% of parts domestically within five years. It is said[who?] that the short-term hardship of Japanese consumers (who were unable to buy the superior vehicles produced by the world market) was more than compensated for by the long-term benefits to producers, who gained time to out-compete their international rivals.[1] Econometric testing The econometric evidence for NTT was mixed, and highly technical. Due to the timescales required, and the particular nature of production in each ‘monopolizable’ sector, statistical judgements were hard to make. In many ways, the available data have been too limited to produce a reliable test of the hypothesis, which doesn’t require arbitrary judgements from the researchers. Japan is cited as evidence of the benefits of â€Å"intelligent† protectionism, but critics[who?] of NTT have argued that the empirical support post-war Japan offers for beneficial protectionism is unusual, and that the NTT argument is based on a selective sample of historical cases. Although many examples (like Japanese cars) can be cited where a ‘protected’ industry subsequently grew to world status, regressions on the outcomes of such â€Å"industrial policies† (which include failures) have been less  conclusive; some findings suggest that sectors targeted by Ja panese industrial policy had decreasing returns to scale and did not experience productivity gains.[2] History of the theory’s development The theory was initially associated with Paul Krugman in the late 1970s; Krugman claims that he heard about monopolistic competition from Robert Solow. Looking back in 1996 Krugman wrote that International economics a generation earlier had completely ignored returns to scale. â€Å"The idea that trade might reflect an overlay of increasing-returns specialization on comparative advantage was not there at all: instead, the ruling idea was that increasing returns would simply alter the pattern of comparative advantage.† In 1976, however, MIT-trained economist Victor Norman had worked out the central elements of what came to be known as the Helpman-Krugman theory. He wrote it up and showed it to Avinash Dixit. However, they both agreed the results were not very significant. Indeed Norman never had the paper typed up, much less published. Norman’s formal stake in the race comes from the final chapters of the famous Dixit-Norman book.[3] James Brander, a PhD student at Stanford at the time, was undertaking similarly innovative work using models from industrial organisation theory—cross-hauling—to explain two-way trade in similar products.[citation needed] â€Å"New† new trade theory Marc Melitz and Pol Antrà  s stated a new trend in the study of international trade. While new trade theory put emphasis on the growing trend of intermediate goods, this new trend emphasizes firm level differences in the same industry of the same country and this new trend is frequently called ‘new’ new trade theory (NNTT).[4][5] NNTT stresses the importance of firms rather than sectors in understanding the challenges and the opportunities countries face in the age of globalization.[6] As international trade is increasingly liberalized, industries of comparative advantage are expected to expand, while those of comparative disadvantage are expected to shrink, leading to an uneven spatial distribution of the corresponding economic activities. Within the very same industry, some firms are not able to cope with international competition while others thrive. The resulting intra-industry reallocations of market shares and productive resources are  much more pronounced than inter-industry reallocations driven by comparative advantage. Theoretical foundations New trade theory and â€Å"new† new trade theory (NNTT) need their own trade theory. New trade theories are often based on assumptions such as monopolistic competition and increasing returns to scale. One of the typical explanation, given by P. Krugman, depends on the assumption that all firms are symmetrical, meaning that they all have the same production coefficients. This is too strict as an assumption and deprived general applicability of Krugman’s explanation. Shiozawa, based on much more general model, succeeded in giving a new explanation on why the traded volume increases for intermediates goods when the transport cost decreases.[7] â€Å"New† new trade theory (NNTT) also needs new theorectical foundation. Melitz and his followers concentrate on empirical aspects and pay little interest on theoretical aspects of NNTT. Shiozawa’s new construction, or Ricardo-Sraffa trade theory, enables Ricardian trade theory to include choice of techniques. Thus the theory can treat a situation where there are many firms with different production processes. Based on this new theory, Fujimoto and Shiozawa[8] analyze how different production sites, either of competing firms or of the same firms locating in the different countries, compete. Porter’s Theory of Competitive Advantage of Nations of International Trade NIRAV S Micheal Porter’s Theory of Competitive Advantage of Nations against the Theory of Competitive advantage sought to examine the issue of why some nation’s business firms succeeded high in international/global competition. The theory of competitive advantage probes into three major aspects of trade phenomenon: i. Why does a nation succeed international in a particular industry? ii. What influence does a nation carry on competition in specific industries and their segments? iii. Why do a nation’s firms choose particular strategies of business? Porter’s analysis begins with following premises: 1. The nature of competition and the sources of competitive advantage differentials in the industries. 2. Successful global enterprises draw  competitive advantages through their value chain of worldwide network. 3. Innovation is the pillion of gaining/sustaining competitive advantage. 4. Pioneering and aggressive competitors in exploiting new market/technology are most successful. Porter undertook intensive research of 100 industries in ten countries. On the basis of empirical investigation, Porter identified for attributes of nation which determine (promote, impede) its competitive advantage referred to as Porter’s Diamond in. The Porter’s Diamond narrates for major attributes: Factor Conditions A country’s factor endowments or supply of factors of production such as human resources, physical resources, knowledge resources, location, capital resources and infrastructure play a significant role in determining its national competitive advantage. Besides basic factors (e.g., natural resources, climate, etc.,) advanced factors (e.g., skilled labour, communications infrastructure, technology) are the crucial determinants of the capabilities and competitiveness of a nation. Advanced factors are declined by the efforts of the individuals, firms, institution and government in a country. Japan’s success may largely be attributed to its advanced factors creation rather than basic factors arability. A nation can overcome its deficiency or comparative disadvantage of basic factors endowment by focusing on creation of advanced factors to improve its competitive advantage. Demand Conditions The demand conditions in home market is important in stimulating domestic firms to undertake innovation and improve quality of products. When domestic buyers are sophisticated, a pressure in the market is created for the domestic firms to meet high standards of quality demanded. For example, Japanese knowledge buyers have induced the Japanese camera manufacturers to produce innovative models first in the home market and then for the exports. Similarly, local customers in Sweden have stimulated Ericsson to invest in cellular phone equipment industry much before the rising global demand. A nations demand conditions, thus, refer to: i. The nature of home buyers needs – their sophistication and fastidiousness ii. The size and pattern of growth of home market iii. The timing of development of demands relative to buyer in foreign markets iv. The knowledge presence of domestic buyers in foreign markets and their preferences. v. The timing of market saturation and challenges at home market provide a strong reason to acquire global competitive position to a business firm. Suppliers and Related Industries National advantage in an industry is also conditioned by the preserve of vigorous home-based suppliers of cost-effective and quality inputs or related supporting industries. For example, the US success in several electronic goods including personal computers is attributed to the growth of semiconductor industry in the country. Same is the case with Malaysia to some extent. Likewise, Sweden steel industry has contributed much to the success of Sweden’s output in ball bearings and cutting tools. Successful industrial growth in the exporting country may emerge on quantum of the growing clusters of related/supervising industries. German textile and approach sector is a chronic case in this regard – (textile machinery, sewing machine needles, textile clothes forming the cluster of textile exporting industry of the country). Ongoing coordination and just-in-time strategy is easy when such cluster industrial growth occurs in a nation.

American Folk Art

Visiting the four on-line sites devoted to â€Å"Gilded Lions and Jewelled Horses: The Synagogue to the Carousel† helped me to enhance my knowledge of Jewish woodcarvers art, and I was also provided with excellent opportunity to explore the works of American and European artists. I found out that American art has contributed developing of distinct Jewish culture within American boundaries. The works of art presented at the sites are really exuberant and refine as they reflect the history of transformation and, what is more important, of survival of cultural heritage.The exhibitions presented amounts more than one hundred works and objects, as well as documentary photographs of synagogue arks and carved gravestones, carousel animals and sacred carvings. I learned that Jewish immigrants had to struggle to balance their observant life with reality as it was difficult for them to adjust to new environment. Nevertheless, the most interested information I learned is about the histor y of carousels and carousel animals – lions and horses.My favorite image (see picture) is a standing horse with jeweled trappings made by Marcus Charles Illions. The horse is wooden, painted and decorated with glass eyes and jewels. Illions is known to create the most animated carousel animas and his horses seemed exhausted from their eternal gallop tempers. The horses were often entailed with wild eyes and they were flying in the air. Carousels gained popularity in American and one of the possible reasons is that they were designed by diverse generation of immigrants who added distinct features to horses and lions.The carousel industry flourished in urban centers of New York and Philadelphia as those regions were characterized by mass immigration from countries with strong carving traditions. Mostly, carousel animals were designed by Italians, Germans and Eastern Europeans. Works Cited http://www. folkartmuseum. org/default. asp? id=1869 http://www. gildedlions. org/ http:// www. gildedlions. org/carousels. html http://www. gildedlions. org/welcome. html